 |
 |
 |
|
|
|
|
The
Iberian workhorse known as the caravel was one of
the most important ships not only in Iberian
history, but in the history of the world.
This
site is dedicated to obtaining a clearer picture of
the caravel, and will investigate many sources in
order to clarify some of the research questions
about this ship and Iberian ship construction in
general. Consequently, aspects of maritime activity
and seafaring life in general during the 15th and
16th centuries will be brought to light. The pages
contained in this site show examples of the type of
scholarly research that is entailed in this
objective. The site will be under construction
indefinitely, new information being added frequently
as it becomes available.
The
caravel of the 15th and 16th centuries was a ship
with a distinctive shape and admirable qualities. A
gently sloping bow and single stern castle were
prominent features of this vessel, and it carried a
mainmast and a mizzen mast that were generally
lateen-rigged. Although the caravel had already been
in use for hundreds of years, it developed into an
incredibly fast, easily maneuverable vessel by this
time, which was noticed by eminent people. This
extraordinary vessel gained fame with the Portuguese
and Spanish voyages of discovery. As Inigo Arieta
(who escorted Columbus out to sea in 1492), the
Commander of the Biscay fleet put it, caravels were
憭corredoras extremadas, buenas para descubrir
tierras (1). Columbus抯 ships Ni馻 and Pinta were
supposedly caravels, and Columbus repeatedly praised
his favorite ship, Ni馻, for her great speed,
maneuverability, and safety (2). However, as is
evident in the historical record, not all caravels
were designed the same way, and many changes were
made throughout the history and development of the
ship. In essence, it is hard to define the 憄ure
archetypal caravel (3).
There
is very little iconography that depicts the caravel
at any stage of its development, and as of yet there
are no extant remains of one of these vessels.
However, it is still possible to trace the origin of
the ship and study it through historical accounts,
shipbuilding treatises, ethnographic studies, and
archaeological parallels. It is the purpose of this
paper to examine these sources, as well as studies
done by various scholars over the years, in order to
present the diagnostic features of 15th and 16th
century Iberian shipbuilding in general and the
caravel in particular.
The
exact origin of the caravel is a matter of some
debate. There are many possibilities and theories,
but no conclusive evidence to sustain them. That the
caravel was a fishing vessel in the 13th century is
evident from Portuguese records from that period.
However, by examining the etymology of the word
慶aravel? it may be possible to trace the vessel抯
origin to an earlier time and even another region.
Elbl reports that in the early 13th century, the
term 慶aravel was connected to a small ship related
to Muslim Algarvian and Maghrebine models of
lateen-rigged craft made to suit Atlantic sailing
conditions (4). This q鈘ib was well equipped to
travel in shallow waters and was used as a fishing
boat, coaster, and light warship (5). Although
little is known about the technical details of this
small Arab vessel, it had preferred features that
allowed it to transform into progressively larger
forms, much like the caravel. Because the caravel
presumably had some of the same characteristics of
the q鈘ib, some speculate that the word 慶aravel is
derived from q鈘ib, and, therefore, the vessel is of
Arabic origin.
Spanish
and Portuguese scholars, during the nineteenth
century, also sought Roman and Greek terms that
could have spawned the word 慶aravel? Jal抯
Arch閛logie navale even suggested an Italian origin
for carabela as cara bella, apparently owing to the
beauty or grace of the vessel (6). Although possible
origins of the word 慶aravel were proposed, the
scholars found no references to the design and
construction of the ships that they were attempting
to trace to the 15th-century vessel, except that
they were referred to as small, light vessels with
good sailing capabilities that traded widely inside
and outside the Mediterranean.
Despite
all of the uncertainty over the etymology of
慶aravel? the first mention of the Portuguese
vessel in an official document was its integration
into the English fleet upon its return to Gascony in
1226 (7). By examining the sources in which these
early caravels appear, as well as other contemporary
ships (with regard to tonnage and build), an
indication of the size and capacity of the early
caravels can be found. Early sources, such as the
floral of Vila Nova de Gaia, refer to the caravel as
paying the lowest entry toll on the list (8). By
comparing the caravel with the other ships on the
list, a relatively small size and capacity can be
attributed to this early version of the vessel.
Throughout the centuries, this changed as the
utilization of the caravel also changed.
Although the word caravel may or may not have been
derived from an Arabic term, Islamic influences
definitely shaped the fate of the 15th-and
16th-century caravel. As Muslims conquered various
lands throughout the Mediterranean and Western
world, they borrowed learning from the people they
subjugated. Unlike other conquerors, they did not
simply impose their view of the world on other
nations. They amalgamated their philosophies with
those of other cultures and thus their conception of
the world grew. In this, the Muslims served as
conveyors of ideas received from people they
conquered. They disseminated ideologies from
different cultures and by the end of their reign in
the 13th century the world view was much different
than the popular ideas of Western Europe. A liberal
philosophy induced an enthusiasm for investigation
and examination which changed the basis of Iberian
life (9). Eventually, this spirit of inquiry
compelled the Spanish and Portuguese to explore the
vast oceans that were so integral to their lives.
It is easy to see then, why Prince Henry the
Navigator of Portugal (1394-1460), consumed with
expansionist ideals, chose the caravel as the ship
to carry out the demands of his journey to the West
African coast in the 1440s. Earlier explorers used
barks of about 25 tons, which had a single mast.
They also experimented with the longer and larger
barinels, but neither of these vessels was adequate
for the increasingly longer voyages (15). For these
reasons, the caravel was summoned to perform the
duties of an explorer. Although by the early 15th
century, the caravel had highly admirable qualities,
it was still far from ideal. The main reasons it was
chosen for the exploration of the African coast were
speed and the ability to sail windward. However, the
caravel抯 great lateen sail required a large crew,
which was dangerous because the diminutive explorer
could not carry vast amounts of fresh water for a
large band of sailors.
During
the 15th century, Iberian shipbuilding underwent a
new phase of design, involving an adaptation to the
demands of ships of discovery. To give an idea of
the elevated preparation of shipyards and shipping
of the 15th century, Don Jo鉶 II of Portugal ordered
a nao of 1000 tons to be built, in a time when they
rarely exceeded 300 tons. The keel of this immense
vessel had a length of 31.50 m and it was 50 m
overall (16). There are records of other impressive
ships from Portugal, such as S鉶 Jo鉶 of 1533/34,
which was one and a half times the size of the
largest Indian ships (17). Such ambition also called
for changes in the caravel as a ship of discovery.
Rather than using the technical knowledge of naval
architects, these demands were taken on by skilled
craftsman, who were capable of transforming the
geometry of the vessel to suit the requirements of a
sea-going explorer (18).
For Columbus抯 expedition in 1492, caravels were
probably chosen as at least two of the accompanying
vessels for the voyage. Santa Mar韆, however, is
generally agreed to have been a nau. The Portuguese
retained the lateen sails for their caravels,
because they better suited their purposes on the
African Coast. But by this time in Spain, the
caravel had largely transformed from the caravela
latina to the caravela redonda (19). It was now a
three-masted vessel wielding a square sail on the
mainmast and foremast, and a lateen sail on the
mizzen. As in the case of Columbus抯 Pinta, the
caravel could often times be converted from a
lateen-rigged vessel to a square-rigged vessel. This
new sail arrangement provided the necessary
adjustments to make the caravel what was commonly
referred to as the best sailing vessel of its time.
It continued to increase in size, but was still
small enough to be easily maneuvered. As the ship
became heavier, it also became beamier in order to
increase the carrying capacity for each meter of
length (20). The length to breadth ratios were now
likely in the range of 4:1 to 3:1 (21). Its
development over the centuries made it a viable
option for exploration, trading, warfare, and
piracy.
The Islamic influence affected many subjects which
relate to seafaring梘eography, mathematics,
astronomy, and medicine. The transcription of Arab
manuscripts in the 13th century left many of these
philosophies at the seaman抯 dispense. Many devices,
such as the astrolabe, compass, and sextant were
applied to seafaring in innovative ways (10). Now
that European nations were immersed in these
philosophies spread by Muslims, many people became
frightened of Muslim influence. Consequently, this
resulted in a demand to increase the centralization
of Christian kingdoms, which helped unite Europe
(11). This collaboration influenced shipbuilding and
led to a fusion of ideas, theories, and methods that
became more and more widespread.
Returning to the 13th-century caravel, a variety of
forms can be seen. It is known from the flora of
Vila Nova that these caravels were small and of
limited capacity. This is understandable,
considering during this period of their development
they were likely primarily fishing vessels. Their
shallow draught and low sides indicate their
usefulness as such a vessel along Atlantic and
Mediterranean coasts. However, it is also
conceivable that these ships were employed for trade
and, therefore, could have been fully decked at this
time. Since many ships during this period were
similar to the caravel in size and rigging, a
tentative comparison can be made with other vessels
regarding tonnage and keel to beam ratios. The
13th-century caravel is surmised to have been a
lateen one-or two-master under thirty tons, with a
keel to beam ratio of 5:1. This is rather high
compared to the ratio of the ship during its last
stages of development in the 17th century, which had
a keel to beam ratio of 2.64:1 (12). These ratios
and tonnages of the 13th-century vessel are very
speculative, but as Elbl notes, 14th century
records梔ated AD 1307梖rom the Biscayan area mention
small caravels with crews of nine men each.
According to Azevedo, these manning ratios (in the
15th century) represent vessels of 18-20 toneis
(13).
Although during the 14th century there is little
doubt that caravels continued to be utilized as
fishing and commercial vessels, there is an odd
absence of the ship (in records) which cannot be
easily explained. Caravels are not mentioned in
historical accounts other than the Biscayan records
of 1307, nor are they depicted in the available
iconography of the period. Despite this absence,
there was definitely a shift in the size of caravels
as they took over the functions of another light
Portuguese vessel, the varinel. The varinel, which
resembled the Atlantic balener, was better suited to
sail in the Bay of Biscay than other southern ships
of the same size. This shift may be indicative of
transitions from a coastal vessel to one capable of
faring well in the high seas. By the first half of
the 15th century, this shift was noted in Catalonia.
In an ordinance of 1438 issued by Alfonso the
Magnanimous it is stated: 搮we know that the settee
was in other times a light oared vessel and now it
is the heaviest ship, of greater board and capacity
for long voyages; the same for the bark卼oday it is
taken in general as a vessel of lateen sail that
consists of three masts?14) Because of these
reasons, it is plausible to assume that throughout
the 14th century the caravel underwent alterations
that made it somewhat more suitable for ocean
voyages. These alterations included increases in
carrying capacity.
At this point, an examination of various documents
and manuscripts can help describe the practice of
Iberian shipbuilding, for they do not become
available until the 16th century. Until records of
shipbuilding practices were kept, such information
was safeguarded in the minds of skilled masters who
passed on the traditions orally from generation to
generation, and by shared work experience. However,
as Casado Soto points out, the combination of low
life expectancy and the rigid secrecy that was
practiced regarding this specialized knowledge
ensured that these traditions would not survive in
writing (22).
Before the reign of the Christian kings, there was
little mention of shipbuilding in Castilian
documents, and when ships do appear it is usually
only with regard to their names, types, and
occasionally tonnage in 揵arrels? However, with the
reign of Charles V and the expansion of foreign
policy, there was an increase in management
techniques. By the time Phillip II became king, the
Spanish bureaucracy reached maturity. During his
reign (1556-1598), he regulated navigation in
convoy, set a standard for mercantile shipbuilding,
and introduced technical specifications that led to
improvements in safety (23). He gave incentive to
shipbuilders by exempting sales tax for the
purchasing of shipbuilding materials. Phillip II
also established an efficient system for measuring
the hulls and capacities of ships, and was the first
European monarch to use a prototype to build ships
for the armadas, choosing the galleon as the model
(24). It is during his reign that the production of
documents recording shipbuilding techniques grew the
most.
The following are some of the
documents that have been published:
1536, Alonso de Chavez: Espejo de
navegantes (25)
ca.
1560, President Visitador: Papeles
(26)
1568, Domingo de Busturria: Memorial
(27)
ca.
1570, Rodrigo Vargas: Apuntamiento
(28)
1575, Juan Escalante de Mendoza:
Itinerario de navegaci髇 (29)
1581, Crostobal de Barros y otros:
Discuci髇 de prototipos de galleon
(30)
1587, Diego Garc韆 de Palacio:
Instrucci髇 nautical (31)
1611, Tom Cano: Arte para fabricar,
fortificar y aparejar naos (32)
These documents are useful tools for studying
the history of shipbuilding, but caution must be
taken when interpreting them. The various authors
were influenced by their professions and the extent
of their experience in shipbuilding is largely
unknown. Nevertheless, they give information on raw
materials needed for shipbuilding, as well as
dimension and tonnage of ships.
Manuscripts and treatises concerning shipbuilding
during this period may be more helpful in
understanding how Iberian ships were constructed.
There are three in particular that deserve
attention: Instrucci髇 nautical (33), Liuro da
fabrica das naos (34), and Livro de tra鏰s de
carpintaria (35). To learn more about these
manuscripts, visit the shipbuilding treatises page
on this website.Existing Caravel Iconography
What we know about the physical appearance of the
caravel--including the shape of its hull, the slope
of the bow, how it rides in the water, etc.--is
severely limited to iconographic representation from
the era under examination. This is a mixed blessing,
since without these remnants from the past we would
have no visual aid for what this vessel looked like.
However, as with all artists' renditions, there
exists the possibility of inaccuracy due to
ignorance, misinterpretation of data, or personal
embellishment. Thus, although the value of
iconographic representations of ancient ships can be
inestimable, they must be studied carefully and with
a critical eye.
The following images are a compilation of much of
the existing graphic representations of the caravel.
The first ten are some of the depictions that
contain the most prominent features of the vessel,
and short descriptions have been included below the
iconography.
1. Caravels from the signatures of 15th-century
Portuguese fishermen
On 5 December 1488 master Joao de Liao signed an
order for a supply of biscuits which were bound for
Pero Vaz da Cunha's caravel. Accompanying his
signature is a drawing of a small sailing vessel.
Presumably, this craft is the caravel to which these
supplies were to be sent. This being the case, this
drawing provided by Joao de Liao is the first known
representation of a Portuguese caravel. Three other
signatures of fisherman from Puerto de Santa Maria
likewise contain simple depictions of vessels from
this period, and are likened to the caravel from the
signature of Joao de Liao. The vessels have low
freeboards, delicately sloping bows, single
forecastles, and are single-masted with lateen
rigged sails. Although these depictions provide
little along the lines of structural
characteristics, these rudimentary sketches
nevertheless contribute to our perceptions of early
caravels with regard to shape and primary traits
that the artists attributed to the ships.
2. Caravel from Livro das Fortalezas de Duarte Damas
This image comes from a page of the early
16th-century book called Livro das Fortalezas de
Duarte Damas, and clearly shows a caravel with an
elongated hull and single sterncastle.
Unfortunately, like most ship iconography, the
caravel's hull is only shown from the waterline up.
This makes it difficult to analyze the lower part of
the hull, but does show the relatively low freeboard
these vessels employed. All the sails are furled in
this representation, and the caravel is shown fairly
close to the shore in the original representation.
Note the similarities between this image and those
from the above signatures of the 15th-century
fishermen.
Spanish
and Portuguese scholars, during the nineteenth
century, also sought Roman and Greek terms that
could have spawned the word 慶aravel? Jal抯
Arch閛logie navale even suggested an Italian origin
for carabela as cara bella, apparently owing to the
beauty or grace of the vessel (6). Although possible
origins of the word 慶aravel were proposed, the
scholars found no references to the design and
construction of the ships that they were attempting
to trace to the 15th-century vessel, except that
they were referred to as small, light vessels with
good sailing capabilities that traded widely inside
and outside the Mediterranean.
Despite
all of the uncertainty over the etymology of
慶aravel? the first mention of the Portuguese
vessel in an official document was its integration
into the English fleet upon its return to Gascony in
1226 (7). By examining the sources in which these
early caravels appear, as well as other contemporary
ships (with regard to tonnage and build), an
indication of the size and capacity of the early
caravels can be found. Early sources, such as the
floral of Vila Nova de Gaia, refer to the caravel as
paying the lowest entry toll on the list (8). By
comparing the caravel with the other ships on the
list, a relatively small size and capacity can be
attributed to this early version of the vessel.
Throughout the centuries, this changed as the
utilization of the caravel also changed.
Although the word caravel may or may not have been
derived from an Arabic term, Islamic influences
definitely shaped the fate of the 15th-and
16th-century caravel. As Muslims conquered various
lands throughout the Mediterranean and Western
world, they borrowed learning from the people they
subjugated. Unlike other conquerors, they did not
simply impose their view of the world on other
nations. They amalgamated their philosophies with
those of other cultures and thus their conception of
the world grew. In this, the Muslims served as
conveyors of ideas received from people they
conquered. They disseminated ideologies from
different cultures and by the end of their reign in
the 13th century the world view was much different
than the popular ideas of Western Europe. A liberal
philosophy induced an enthusiasm for investigation
and examination which changed the basis of Iberian
life (9). Eventually, this spirit of inquiry
compelled the Spanish and Portuguese to explore the
vast oceans that were so integral to their lives.
It is easy to see then, why Prince Henry the
Navigator of Portugal (1394-1460), consumed with
expansionist ideals, chose the caravel as the ship
to carry out the demands of his journey to the West
African coast in the 1440s. Earlier explorers used
barks of about 25 tons, which had a single mast.
They also experimented with the longer and larger
barinels, but neither of these vessels was adequate
for the increasingly longer voyages (15). For these
reasons, the caravel was summoned to perform the
duties of an explorer. Although by the early 15th
century, the caravel had highly admirable qualities,
it was still far from ideal. The main reasons it was
chosen for the exploration of the African coast were
speed and the ability to sail windward. However, the
caravel抯 great lateen sail required a large crew,
which was dangerous because the diminutive explorer
could not carry vast amounts of fresh water for a
large band of sailors.
During
the 15th century, Iberian shipbuilding underwent a
new phase of design, involving an adaptation to the
demands of ships of discovery. To give an idea of
the elevated preparation of shipyards and shipping
of the 15th century, Don Jo鉶 II of Portugal ordered
a nao of 1000 tons to be built, in a time when they
rarely exceeded 300 tons. The keel of this immense
vessel had a length of 31.50 m and it was 50 m
overall (16). There are records of other impressive
ships from Portugal, such as S鉶 Jo鉶 of 1533/34,
which was one and a half times the size of the
largest Indian ships (17). Such ambition also called
for changes in the caravel as a ship of discovery.
Rather than using the technical knowledge of naval
architects, these demands were taken on by skilled
craftsman, who were capable of transforming the
geometry of the vessel to suit the requirements of a
sea-going explorer (18).
For Columbus抯 expedition in 1492, caravels were
probably chosen as at least two of the accompanying
vessels for the voyage. Santa Mar韆, however, is
generally agreed to have been a nau. The Portuguese
retained the lateen sails for their caravels,
because they better suited their purposes on the
African Coast. But by this time in Spain, the
caravel had largely transformed from the caravela
latina to the caravela redonda (19). It was now a
three-masted vessel wielding a square sail on the
mainmast and foremast, and a lateen sail on the
mizzen. As in the case of Columbus抯 Pinta, the
caravel could often times be converted from a
lateen-rigged vessel to a square-rigged vessel. This
new sail arrangement provided the necessary
adjustments to make the caravel what was commonly
referred to as the best sailing vessel of its time.
It continued to increase in size, but was still
small enough to be easily maneuvered. As the ship
became heavier, it also became beamier in order to
increase the carrying capacity for each meter of
length (20). The length to breadth ratios were now
likely in the range of 4:1 to 3:1 (21). Its
development over the centuries made it a viable
option for exploration, trading, warfare, and
piracy.
The Islamic influence affected many subjects which
relate to seafaring梘eography, mathematics,
astronomy, and medicine. The transcription of Arab
manuscripts in the 13th century left many of these
philosophies at the seaman抯 dispense. Many devices,
such as the astrolabe, compass, and sextant were
applied to seafaring in innovative ways (10). Now
that European nations were immersed in these
philosophies spread by Muslims, many people became
frightened of Muslim influence. Consequently, this
resulted in a demand to increase the centralization
of Christian kingdoms, which helped unite Europe
(11). This collaboration influenced shipbuilding and
led to a fusion of ideas, theories, and methods that
became more and more widespread.
Returning to the 13th-century caravel, a variety of
forms can be seen. It is known from the flora of
Vila Nova that these caravels were small and of
limited capacity. This is understandable,
considering during this period of their development
they were likely primarily fishing vessels. Their
shallow draught and low sides indicate their
usefulness as such a vessel along Atlantic and
Mediterranean coasts. However, it is also
conceivable that these ships were employed for trade
and, therefore, could have been fully decked at this
time. Since many ships during this period were
similar to the caravel in size and rigging, a
tentative comparison can be made with other vessels
regarding tonnage and keel to beam ratios. The
13th-century caravel is surmised to have been a
lateen one-or two-master under thirty tons, with a
keel to beam ratio of 5:1. This is rather high
compared to the ratio of the ship during its last
stages of development in the 17th century, which had
a keel to beam ratio of 2.64:1 (12). These ratios
and tonnages of the 13th-century vessel are very
speculative, but as Elbl notes, 14th century
records梔ated AD 1307梖rom the Biscayan area mention
small caravels with crews of nine men each.
According to Azevedo, these manning ratios (in the
15th century) represent vessels of 18-20 toneis
(13).
Although during the 14th century there is little
doubt that caravels continued to be utilized as
fishing and commercial vessels, there is an odd
absence of the ship (in records) which cannot be
easily explained. Caravels are not mentioned in
historical accounts other than the Biscayan records
of 1307, nor are they depicted in the available
iconography of the period. Despite this absence,
there was definitely a shift in the size of caravels
as they took over the functions of another light
Portuguese vessel, the varinel. The varinel, which
resembled the Atlantic balener, was better suited to
sail in the Bay of Biscay than other southern ships
of the same size. This shift may be indicative of
transitions from a coastal vessel to one capable of
faring well in the high seas. By the first half of
the 15th century, this shift was noted in Catalonia.
In an ordinance of 1438 issued by Alfonso the
Magnanimous it is stated: 搮we know that the settee
was in other times a light oared vessel and now it
is the heaviest ship, of greater board and capacity
for long voyages; the same for the bark卼oday it is
taken in general as a vessel of lateen sail that
consists of three masts?14) Because of these
reasons, it is plausible to assume that throughout
the 14th century the caravel underwent alterations
that made it somewhat more suitable for ocean
voyages. These alterations included increases in
carrying capacity.
At this point, an examination of various documents
and manuscripts can help describe the practice of
Iberian shipbuilding, for they do not become
available until the 16th century. Until records of
shipbuilding practices were kept, such information
was safeguarded in the minds of skilled masters who
passed on the traditions orally from generation to
generation, and by shared work experience. However,
as Casado Soto points out, the combination of low
life expectancy and the rigid secrecy that was
practiced regarding this specialized knowledge
ensured that these traditions would not survive in
writing (22).
Before the reign of the Christian kings, there was
little mention of shipbuilding in Castilian
documents, and when ships do appear it is usually
only with regard to their names, types, and
occasionally tonnage in 揵arrels? However, with the
reign of Charles V and the expansion of foreign
policy, there was an increase in management
techniques. By the time Phillip II became king, the
Spanish bureaucracy reached maturity. During his
reign (1556-1598), he regulated navigation in
convoy, set a standard for mercantile shipbuilding,
and introduced technical specifications that led to
improvements in safety (23). He gave incentive to
shipbuilders by exempting sales tax for the
purchasing of shipbuilding materials. Phillip II
also established an efficient system for measuring
the hulls and capacities of ships, and was the first
European monarch to use a prototype to build ships
for the armadas, choosing the galleon as the model
(24). It is during his reign that the production of
documents recording shipbuilding techniques grew the
most.
The following are some of the
documents that have been published:
1536, Alonso de Chavez: Espejo de
navegantes (25)
ca.
1560, President Visitador: Papeles
(26)
1568, Domingo de Busturria: Memorial
(27)
ca.
1570, Rodrigo Vargas: Apuntamiento
(28)
1575, Juan Escalante de Mendoza:
Itinerario de navegaci髇 (29)
1581, Crostobal de Barros y otros:
Discuci髇 de prototipos de galleon
(30)
1587, Diego Garc韆 de Palacio:
Instrucci髇 nautical (31)
1611, Tom Cano: Arte para fabricar,
fortificar y aparejar naos (32)
These documents are useful tools for studying
the history of shipbuilding, but caution must be
taken when interpreting them. The various authors
were influenced by their professions and the extent
of their experience in shipbuilding is largely
unknown. Nevertheless, they give information on raw
materials needed for shipbuilding, as well as
dimension and tonnage of ships.
Manuscripts and treatises concerning shipbuilding
during this period may be more helpful in
understanding how Iberian ships were constructed.
There are three in particular that deserve
attention: Instrucci髇 nautical (33), Liuro da
fabrica das naos (34), and Livro de tra鏰s de
carpintaria (35). To learn more about these
manuscripts, visit the shipbuilding treatises page
on this website.Existing Caravel Iconography
What we know about the physical appearance of the
caravel--including the shape of its hull, the slope
of the bow, how it rides in the water, etc.--is
severely limited to iconographic representation from
the era under examination. This is a mixed blessing,
since without these remnants from the past we would
have no visual aid for what this vessel looked like.
However, as with all artists' renditions, there
exists the possibility of inaccuracy due to
ignorance, misinterpretation of data, or personal
embellishment. Thus, although the value of
iconographic representations of ancient ships can be
inestimable, they must be studied carefully and with
a critical eye.
The following images are a compilation of much of
the existing graphic representations of the caravel.
The first ten are some of the depictions that
contain the most prominent features of the vessel,
and short descriptions have been included below the
iconography.
1. Caravels from the signatures of 15th-century
Portuguese fishermen
On 5 December 1488 master Joao de Liao signed an
order for a supply of biscuits which were bound for
Pero Vaz da Cunha's caravel. Accompanying his
signature is a drawing of a small sailing vessel.
Presumably, this craft is the caravel to which these
supplies were to be sent. This being the case, this
drawing provided by Joao de Liao is the first known
representation of a Portuguese caravel. Three other
signatures of fisherman from Puerto de Santa Maria
likewise contain simple depictions of vessels from
this period, and are likened to the caravel from the
signature of Joao de Liao. The vessels have low
freeboards, delicately sloping bows, single
forecastles, and are single-masted with lateen
rigged sails. Although these depictions provide
little along the lines of structural
characteristics, these rudimentary sketches
nevertheless contribute to our perceptions of early
caravels with regard to shape and primary traits
that the artists attributed to the ships.
2. Caravel from Livro das Fortalezas de Duarte Damas
This image comes from a page of the early
16th-century book called Livro das Fortalezas de
Duarte Damas, and clearly shows a caravel with an
elongated hull and single sterncastle.
Unfortunately, like most ship iconography, the
caravel's hull is only shown from the waterline up.
This makes it difficult to analyze the lower part of
the hull, but does show the relatively low freeboard
these vessels employed. All the sails are furled in
this representation, and the caravel is shown fairly
close to the shore in the original representation.
Note the similarities between this image and those
from the above signatures of the 15th-century
fishermen.
It is easy to see then, why Prince Henry the
Navigator of Portugal (1394-1460), consumed with
expansionist ideals, chose the caravel as the ship
to carry out the demands of his journey to the West
African coast in the 1440s. Earlier explorers used
barks of about 25 tons, which had a single mast.
They also experimented with the longer and larger
barinels, but neither of these vessels was adequate
for the increasingly longer voyages (15). For these
reasons, the caravel was summoned to perform the
duties of an explorer. Although by the early 15th
century, the caravel had highly admirable qualities,
it was still far from ideal. The main reasons it was
chosen for the exploration of the African coast were
speed and the ability to sail windward. However, the
caravel抯 great lateen sail required a large crew,
which was dangerous because the diminutive explorer
could not carry vast amounts of fresh water for a
large band of sailors.
During
the 15th century, Iberian shipbuilding underwent a
new phase of design, involving an adaptation to the
demands of ships of discovery. To give an idea of
the elevated preparation of shipyards and shipping
of the 15th century, Don Jo鉶 II of Portugal ordered
a nao of 1000 tons to be built, in a time when they
rarely exceeded 300 tons. The keel of this immense
vessel had a length of 31.50 m and it was 50 m
overall (16). There are records of other impressive
ships from Portugal, such as S鉶 Jo鉶 of 1533/34,
which was one and a half times the size of the
largest Indian ships (17). Such ambition also called
for changes in the caravel as a ship of discovery.
Rather than using the technical knowledge of naval
architects, these demands were taken on by skilled
craftsman, who were capable of transforming the
geometry of the vessel to suit the requirements of a
sea-going explorer (18).
For Columbus抯 expedition in 1492, caravels were
probably chosen as at least two of the accompanying
vessels for the voyage. Santa Mar韆, however, is
generally agreed to have been a nau. The Portuguese
retained the lateen sails for their caravels,
because they better suited their purposes on the
African Coast. But by this time in Spain, the
caravel had largely transformed from the caravela
latina to the caravela redonda (19). It was now a
three-masted vessel wielding a square sail on the
mainmast and foremast, and a lateen sail on the
mizzen. As in the case of Columbus抯 Pinta, the
caravel could often times be converted from a
lateen-rigged vessel to a square-rigged vessel. This
new sail arrangement provided the necessary
adjustments to make the caravel what was commonly
referred to as the best sailing vessel of its time.
It continued to increase in size, but was still
small enough to be easily maneuvered. As the ship
became heavier, it also became beamier in order to
increase the carrying capacity for each meter of
length (20). The length to breadth ratios were now
likely in the range of 4:1 to 3:1 (21). Its
development over the centuries made it a viable
option for exploration, trading, warfare, and
piracy.
The Islamic influence affected many subjects which
relate to seafaring梘eography, mathematics,
astronomy, and medicine. The transcription of Arab
manuscripts in the 13th century left many of these
philosophies at the seaman抯 dispense. Many devices,
such as the astrolabe, compass, and sextant were
applied to seafaring in innovative ways (10). Now
that European nations were immersed in these
philosophies spread by Muslims, many people became
frightened of Muslim influence. Consequently, this
resulted in a demand to increase the centralization
of Christian kingdoms, which helped unite Europe
(11). This collaboration influenced shipbuilding and
led to a fusion of ideas, theories, and methods that
became more and more widespread.
Returning to the 13th-century caravel, a variety of
forms can be seen. It is known from the flora of
Vila Nova that these caravels were small and of
limited capacity. This is understandable,
considering during this period of their development
they were likely primarily fishing vessels. Their
shallow draught and low sides indicate their
usefulness as such a vessel along Atlantic and
Mediterranean coasts. However, it is also
conceivable that these ships were employed for trade
and, therefore, could have been fully decked at this
time. Since many ships during this period were
similar to the caravel in size and rigging, a
tentative comparison can be made with other vessels
regarding tonnage and keel to beam ratios. The
13th-century caravel is surmised to have been a
lateen one-or two-master under thirty tons, with a
keel to beam ratio of 5:1. This is rather high
compared to the ratio of the ship during its last
stages of development in the 17th century, which had
a keel to beam ratio of 2.64:1 (12). These ratios
and tonnages of the 13th-century vessel are very
speculative, but as Elbl notes, 14th century
records梔ated AD 1307梖rom the Biscayan area mention
small caravels with crews of nine men each.
According to Azevedo, these manning ratios (in the
15th century) represent vessels of 18-20 toneis
(13).
Although during the 14th century there is little
doubt that caravels continued to be utilized as
fishing and commercial vessels, there is an odd
absence of the ship (in records) which cannot be
easily explained. Caravels are not mentioned in
historical accounts other than the Biscayan records
of 1307, nor are they depicted in the available
iconography of the period. Despite this absence,
there was definitely a shift in the size of caravels
as they took over the functions of another light
Portuguese vessel, the varinel. The varinel, which
resembled the Atlantic balener, was better suited to
sail in the Bay of Biscay than other southern ships
of the same size. This shift may be indicative of
transitions from a coastal vessel to one capable of
faring well in the high seas. By the first half of
the 15th century, this shift was noted in Catalonia.
In an ordinance of 1438 issued by Alfonso the
Magnanimous it is stated: 搮we know that the settee
was in other times a light oared vessel and now it
is the heaviest ship, of greater board and capacity
for long voyages; the same for the bark卼oday it is
taken in general as a vessel of lateen sail that
consists of three masts?14) Because of these
reasons, it is plausible to assume that throughout
the 14th century the caravel underwent alterations
that made it somewhat more suitable for ocean
voyages. These alterations included increases in
carrying capacity.
At this point, an examination of various documents
and manuscripts can help describe the practice of
Iberian shipbuilding, for they do not become
available until the 16th century. Until records of
shipbuilding practices were kept, such information
was safeguarded in the minds of skilled masters who
passed on the traditions orally from generation to
generation, and by shared work experience. However,
as Casado Soto points out, the combination of low
life expectancy and the rigid secrecy that was
practiced regarding this specialized knowledge
ensured that these traditions would not survive in
writing (22).
Before the reign of the Christian kings, there was
little mention of shipbuilding in Castilian
documents, and when ships do appear it is usually
only with regard to their names, types, and
occasionally tonnage in 揵arrels? However, with the
reign of Charles V and the expansion of foreign
policy, there was an increase in management
techniques. By the time Phillip II became king, the
Spanish bureaucracy reached maturity. During his
reign (1556-1598), he regulated navigation in
convoy, set a standard for mercantile shipbuilding,
and introduced technical specifications that led to
improvements in safety (23). He gave incentive to
shipbuilders by exempting sales tax for the
purchasing of shipbuilding materials. Phillip II
also established an efficient system for measuring
the hulls and capacities of ships, and was the first
European monarch to use a prototype to build ships
for the armadas, choosing the galleon as the model
(24). It is during his reign that the production of
documents recording shipbuilding techniques grew the
most.
The following are some of the
documents that have been published:
1536, Alonso de Chavez: Espejo de
navegantes (25)
ca.
1560, President Visitador: Papeles
(26)
1568, Domingo de Busturria: Memorial
(27)
ca.
1570, Rodrigo Vargas: Apuntamiento
(28)
1575, Juan Escalante de Mendoza:
Itinerario de navegaci髇 (29)
1581, Crostobal de Barros y otros:
Discuci髇 de prototipos de galleon
(30)
1587, Diego Garc韆 de Palacio:
Instrucci髇 nautical (31)
1611, Tom Cano: Arte para fabricar,
fortificar y aparejar naos (32)
These documents are useful tools for studying
the history of shipbuilding, but caution must be
taken when interpreting them. The various authors
were influenced by their professions and the extent
of their experience in shipbuilding is largely
unknown. Nevertheless, they give information on raw
materials needed for shipbuilding, as well as
dimension and tonnage of ships.
Manuscripts and treatises concerning shipbuilding
during this period may be more helpful in
understanding how Iberian ships were constructed.
There are three in particular that deserve
attention: Instrucci髇 nautical (33), Liuro da
fabrica das naos (34), and Livro de tra鏰s de
carpintaria (35). To learn more about these
manuscripts, visit the shipbuilding treatises page
on this website.Existing Caravel Iconography
What we know about the physical appearance of the
caravel--including the shape of its hull, the slope
of the bow, how it rides in the water, etc.--is
severely limited to iconographic representation from
the era under examination. This is a mixed blessing,
since without these remnants from the past we would
have no visual aid for what this vessel looked like.
However, as with all artists' renditions, there
exists the possibility of inaccuracy due to
ignorance, misinterpretation of data, or personal
embellishment. Thus, although the value of
iconographic representations of ancient ships can be
inestimable, they must be studied carefully and with
a critical eye.
The following images are a compilation of much of
the existing graphic representations of the caravel.
The first ten are some of the depictions that
contain the most prominent features of the vessel,
and short descriptions have been included below the
iconography.
1. Caravels from the signatures of 15th-century
Portuguese fishermen
On 5 December 1488 master Joao de Liao signed an
order for a supply of biscuits which were bound for
Pero Vaz da Cunha's caravel. Accompanying his
signature is a drawing of a small sailing vessel.
Presumably, this craft is the caravel to which these
supplies were to be sent. This being the case, this
drawing provided by Joao de Liao is the first known
representation of a Portuguese caravel. Three other
signatures of fisherman from Puerto de Santa Maria
likewise contain simple depictions of vessels from
this period, and are likened to the caravel from the
signature of Joao de Liao. The vessels have low
freeboards, delicately sloping bows, single
forecastles, and are single-masted with lateen
rigged sails. Although these depictions provide
little along the lines of structural
characteristics, these rudimentary sketches
nevertheless contribute to our perceptions of early
caravels with regard to shape and primary traits
that the artists attributed to the ships.
2. Caravel from Livro das Fortalezas de Duarte Damas
This image comes from a page of the early
16th-century book called Livro das Fortalezas de
Duarte Damas, and clearly shows a caravel with an
elongated hull and single sterncastle.
Unfortunately, like most ship iconography, the
caravel's hull is only shown from the waterline up.
This makes it difficult to analyze the lower part of
the hull, but does show the relatively low freeboard
these vessels employed. All the sails are furled in
this representation, and the caravel is shown fairly
close to the shore in the original representation.
Note the similarities between this image and those
from the above signatures of the 15th-century
fishermen.
During
the 15th century, Iberian shipbuilding underwent a
new phase of design, involving an adaptation to the
demands of ships of discovery. To give an idea of
the elevated preparation of shipyards and shipping
of the 15th century, Don Jo鉶 II of Portugal ordered
a nao of 1000 tons to be built, in a time when they
rarely exceeded 300 tons. The keel of this immense
vessel had a length of 31.50 m and it was 50 m
overall (16). There are records of other impressive
ships from Portugal, such as S鉶 Jo鉶 of 1533/34,
which was one and a half times the size of the
largest Indian ships (17). Such ambition also called
for changes in the caravel as a ship of discovery.
Rather than using the technical knowledge of naval
architects, these demands were taken on by skilled
craftsman, who were capable of transforming the
geometry of the vessel to suit the requirements of a
sea-going explorer (18).
For Columbus抯 expedition in 1492, caravels were
probably chosen as at least two of the accompanying
vessels for the voyage. Santa Mar韆, however, is
generally agreed to have been a nau. The Portuguese
retained the lateen sails for their caravels,
because they better suited their purposes on the
African Coast. But by this time in Spain, the
caravel had largely transformed from the caravela
latina to the caravela redonda (19). It was now a
three-masted vessel wielding a square sail on the
mainmast and foremast, and a lateen sail on the
mizzen. As in the case of Columbus抯 Pinta, the
caravel could often times be converted from a
lateen-rigged vessel to a square-rigged vessel. This
new sail arrangement provided the necessary
adjustments to make the caravel what was commonly
referred to as the best sailing vessel of its time.
It continued to increase in size, but was still
small enough to be easily maneuvered. As the ship
became heavier, it also became beamier in order to
increase the carrying capacity for each meter of
length (20). The length to breadth ratios were now
likely in the range of 4:1 to 3:1 (21). Its
development over the centuries made it a viable
option for exploration, trading, warfare, and
piracy.
The Islamic influence affected many subjects which
relate to seafaring梘eography, mathematics,
astronomy, and medicine. The transcription of Arab
manuscripts in the 13th century left many of these
philosophies at the seaman抯 dispense. Many devices,
such as the astrolabe, compass, and sextant were
applied to seafaring in innovative ways (10). Now
that European nations were immersed in these
philosophies spread by Muslims, many people became
frightened of Muslim influence. Consequently, this
resulted in a demand to increase the centralization
of Christian kingdoms, which helped unite Europe
(11). This collaboration influenced shipbuilding and
led to a fusion of ideas, theories, and methods that
became more and more widespread.
Returning to the 13th-century caravel, a variety of
forms can be seen. It is known from the flora of
Vila Nova that these caravels were small and of
limited capacity. This is understandable,
considering during this period of their development
they were likely primarily fishing vessels. Their
shallow draught and low sides indicate their
usefulness as such a vessel along Atlantic and
Mediterranean coasts. However, it is also
conceivable that these ships were employed for trade
and, therefore, could have been fully decked at this
time. Since many ships during this period were
similar to the caravel in size and rigging, a
tentative comparison can be made with other vessels
regarding tonnage and keel to beam ratios. The
13th-century caravel is surmised to have been a
lateen one-or two-master under thirty tons, with a
keel to beam ratio of 5:1. This is rather high
compared to the ratio of the ship during its last
stages of development in the 17th century, which had
a keel to beam ratio of 2.64:1 (12). These ratios
and tonnages of the 13th-century vessel are very
speculative, but as Elbl notes, 14th century
records梔ated AD 1307梖rom the Biscayan area mention
small caravels with crews of nine men each.
According to Azevedo, these manning ratios (in the
15th century) represent vessels of 18-20 toneis
(13).
Although during the 14th century there is little
doubt that caravels continued to be utilized as
fishing and commercial vessels, there is an odd
absence of the ship (in records) which cannot be
easily explained. Caravels are not mentioned in
historical accounts other than the Biscayan records
of 1307, nor are they depicted in the available
iconography of the period. Despite this absence,
there was definitely a shift in the size of caravels
as they took over the functions of another light
Portuguese vessel, the varinel. The varinel, which
resembled the Atlantic balener, was better suited to
sail in the Bay of Biscay than other southern ships
of the same size. This shift may be indicative of
transitions from a coastal vessel to one capable of
faring well in the high seas. By the first half of
the 15th century, this shift was noted in Catalonia.
In an ordinance of 1438 issued by Alfonso the
Magnanimous it is stated: 搮we know that the settee
was in other times a light oared vessel and now it
is the heaviest ship, of greater board and capacity
for long voyages; the same for the bark卼oday it is
taken in general as a vessel of lateen sail that
consists of three masts?14) Because of these
reasons, it is plausible to assume that throughout
the 14th century the caravel underwent alterations
that made it somewhat more suitable for ocean
voyages. These alterations included increases in
carrying capacity.
At this point, an examination of various documents
and manuscripts can help describe the practice of
Iberian shipbuilding, for they do not become
available until the 16th century. Until records of
shipbuilding practices were kept, such information
was safeguarded in the minds of skilled masters who
passed on the traditions orally from generation to
generation, and by shared work experience. However,
as Casado Soto points out, the combination of low
life expectancy and the rigid secrecy that was
practiced regarding this specialized knowledge
ensured that these traditions would not survive in
writing (22).
Before the reign of the Christian kings, there was
little mention of shipbuilding in Castilian
documents, and when ships do appear it is usually
only with regard to their names, types, and
occasionally tonnage in 揵arrels? However, with the
reign of Charles V and the expansion of foreign
policy, there was an increase in management
techniques. By the time Phillip II became king, the
Spanish bureaucracy reached maturity. During his
reign (1556-1598), he regulated navigation in
convoy, set a standard for mercantile shipbuilding,
and introduced technical specifications that led to
improvements in safety (23). He gave incentive to
shipbuilders by exempting sales tax for the
purchasing of shipbuilding materials. Phillip II
also established an efficient system for measuring
the hulls and capacities of ships, and was the first
European monarch to use a prototype to build ships
for the armadas, choosing the galleon as the model
(24). It is during his reign that the production of
documents recording shipbuilding techniques grew the
most.
The following are some of the
documents that have been published:
1536, Alonso de Chavez: Espejo de
navegantes (25)
ca.
1560, President Visitador: Papeles
(26)
1568, Domingo de Busturria: Memorial
(27)
ca.
1570, Rodrigo Vargas: Apuntamiento
(28)
1575, Juan Escalante de Mendoza:
Itinerario de navegaci髇 (29)
1581, Crostobal de Barros y otros:
Discuci髇 de prototipos de galleon
(30)
1587, Diego Garc韆 de Palacio:
Instrucci髇 nautical (31)
1611, Tom Cano: Arte para fabricar,
fortificar y aparejar naos (32)
These documents are useful tools for studying
the history of shipbuilding, but caution must be
taken when interpreting them. The various authors
were influenced by their professions and the extent
of their experience in shipbuilding is largely
unknown. Nevertheless, they give information on raw
materials needed for shipbuilding, as well as
dimension and tonnage of ships.
Manuscripts and treatises concerning shipbuilding
during this period may be more helpful in
understanding how Iberian ships were constructed.
There are three in particular that deserve
attention: Instrucci髇 nautical (33), Liuro da
fabrica das naos (34), and Livro de tra鏰s de
carpintaria (35). To learn more about these
manuscripts, visit the shipbuilding treatises page
on this website.Existing Caravel Iconography
What we know about the physical appearance of the
caravel--including the shape of its hull, the slope
of the bow, how it rides in the water, etc.--is
severely limited to iconographic representation from
the era under examination. This is a mixed blessing,
since without these remnants from the past we would
have no visual aid for what this vessel looked like.
However, as with all artists' renditions, there
exists the possibility of inaccuracy due to
ignorance, misinterpretation of data, or personal
embellishment. Thus, although the value of
iconographic representations of ancient ships can be
inestimable, they must be studied carefully and with
a critical eye.
The following images are a compilation of much of
the existing graphic representations of the caravel.
The first ten are some of the depictions that
contain the most prominent features of the vessel,
and short descriptions have been included below the
iconography.
1. Caravels from the signatures of 15th-century
Portuguese fishermen
On 5 December 1488 master Joao de Liao signed an
order for a supply of biscuits which were bound for
Pero Vaz da Cunha's caravel. Accompanying his
signature is a drawing of a small sailing vessel.
Presumably, this craft is the caravel to which these
supplies were to be sent. This being the case, this
drawing provided by Joao de Liao is the first known
representation of a Portuguese caravel. Three other
signatures of fisherman from Puerto de Santa Maria
likewise contain simple depictions of vessels from
this period, and are likened to the caravel from the
signature of Joao de Liao. The vessels have low
freeboards, delicately sloping bows, single
forecastles, and are single-masted with lateen
rigged sails. Although these depictions provide
little along the lines of structural
characteristics, these rudimentary sketches
nevertheless contribute to our perceptions of early
caravels with regard to shape and primary traits
that the artists attributed to the ships.
2. Caravel from Livro das Fortalezas de Duarte Damas
This image comes from a page of the early
16th-century book called Livro das Fortalezas de
Duarte Damas, and clearly shows a caravel with an
elongated hull and single sterncastle.
Unfortunately, like most ship iconography, the
caravel's hull is only shown from the waterline up.
This makes it difficult to analyze the lower part of
the hull, but does show the relatively low freeboard
these vessels employed. All the sails are furled in
this representation, and the caravel is shown fairly
close to the shore in the original representation.
Note the similarities between this image and those
from the above signatures of the 15th-century
fishermen.
Returning to the 13th-century caravel, a variety of
forms can be seen. It is known from the flora of
Vila Nova that these caravels were small and of
limited capacity. This is understandable,
considering during this period of their development
they were likely primarily fishing vessels. Their
shallow draught and low sides indicate their
usefulness as such a vessel along Atlantic and
Mediterranean coasts. However, it is also
conceivable that these ships were employed for trade
and, therefore, could have been fully decked at this
time. Since many ships during this period were
similar to the caravel in size and rigging, a
tentative comparison can be made with other vessels
regarding tonnage and keel to beam ratios. The
13th-century caravel is surmised to have been a
lateen one-or two-master under thirty tons, with a
keel to beam ratio of 5:1. This is rather high
compared to the ratio of the ship during its last
stages of development in the 17th century, which had
a keel to beam ratio of 2.64:1 (12). These ratios
and tonnages of the 13th-century vessel are very
speculative, but as Elbl notes, 14th century
records梔ated AD 1307梖rom the Biscayan area mention
small caravels with crews of nine men each.
According to Azevedo, these manning ratios (in the
15th century) represent vessels of 18-20 toneis
(13).
Although during the 14th century there is little
doubt that caravels continued to be utilized as
fishing and commercial vessels, there is an odd
absence of the ship (in records) which cannot be
easily explained. Caravels are not mentioned in
historical accounts other than the Biscayan records
of 1307, nor are they depicted in the available
iconography of the period. Despite this absence,
there was definitely a shift in the size of caravels
as they took over the functions of another light
Portuguese vessel, the varinel. The varinel, which
resembled the Atlantic balener, was better suited to
sail in the Bay of Biscay than other southern ships
of the same size. This shift may be indicative of
transitions from a coastal vessel to one capable of
faring well in the high seas. By the first half of
the 15th century, this shift was noted in Catalonia.
In an ordinance of 1438 issued by Alfonso the
Magnanimous it is stated: 搮we know that the settee
was in other times a light oared vessel and now it
is the heaviest ship, of greater board and capacity
for long voyages; the same for the bark卼oday it is
taken in general as a vessel of lateen sail that
consists of three masts?14) Because of these
reasons, it is plausible to assume that throughout
the 14th century the caravel underwent alterations
that made it somewhat more suitable for ocean
voyages. These alterations included increases in
carrying capacity.
At this point, an examination of various documents
and manuscripts can help describe the practice of
Iberian shipbuilding, for they do not become
available until the 16th century. Until records of
shipbuilding practices were kept, such information
was safeguarded in the minds of skilled masters who
passed on the traditions orally from generation to
generation, and by shared work experience. However,
as Casado Soto points out, the combination of low
life expectancy and the rigid secrecy that was
practiced regarding this specialized knowledge
ensured that these traditions would not survive in
writing (22).
Before the reign of the Christian kings, there was
little mention of shipbuilding in Castilian
documents, and when ships do appear it is usually
only with regard to their names, types, and
occasionally tonnage in 揵arrels? However, with the
reign of Charles V and the expansion of foreign
policy, there was an increase in management
techniques. By the time Phillip II became king, the
Spanish bureaucracy reached maturity. During his
reign (1556-1598), he regulated navigation in
convoy, set a standard for mercantile shipbuilding,
and introduced technical specifications that led to
improvements in safety (23). He gave incentive to
shipbuilders by exempting sales tax for the
purchasing of shipbuilding materials. Phillip II
also established an efficient system for measuring
the hulls and capacities of ships, and was the first
European monarch to use a prototype to build ships
for the armadas, choosing the galleon as the model
(24). It is during his reign that the production of
documents recording shipbuilding techniques grew the
most.
The following are some of the
documents that have been published:
1536, Alonso de Chavez: Espejo de
navegantes (25)
ca.
1560, President Visitador: Papeles
(26)
1568, Domingo de Busturria: Memorial
(27)
ca.
1570, Rodrigo Vargas: Apuntamiento
(28)
1575, Juan Escalante de Mendoza:
Itinerario de navegaci髇 (29)
1581, Crostobal de Barros y otros:
Discuci髇 de prototipos de galleon
(30)
1587, Diego Garc韆 de Palacio:
Instrucci髇 nautical (31)
1611, Tom Cano: Arte para fabricar,
fortificar y aparejar naos (32)
These documents are useful tools for studying
the history of shipbuilding, but caution must be
taken when interpreting them. The various authors
were influenced by their professions and the extent
of their experience in shipbuilding is largely
unknown. Nevertheless, they give information on raw
materials needed for shipbuilding, as well as
dimension and tonnage of ships.
Manuscripts and treatises concerning shipbuilding
during this period may be more helpful in
understanding how Iberian ships were constructed.
There are three in particular that deserve
attention: Instrucci髇 nautical (33), Liuro da
fabrica das naos (34), and Livro de tra鏰s de
carpintaria (35). To learn more about these
manuscripts, visit the shipbuilding treatises page
on this website.Existing Caravel Iconography
What we know about the physical appearance of the
caravel--including the shape of its hull, the slope
of the bow, how it rides in the water, etc.--is
severely limited to iconographic representation from
the era under examination. This is a mixed blessing,
since without these remnants from the past we would
have no visual aid for what this vessel looked like.
However, as with all artists' renditions, there
exists the possibility of inaccuracy due to
ignorance, misinterpretation of data, or personal
embellishment. Thus, although the value of
iconographic representations of ancient ships can be
inestimable, they must be studied carefully and with
a critical eye.
The following images are a compilation of much of
the existing graphic representations of the caravel.
The first ten are some of the depictions that
contain the most prominent features of the vessel,
and short descriptions have been included below the
iconography.
1. Caravels from the signatures of 15th-century
Portuguese fishermen
On 5 December 1488 master Joao de Liao signed an
order for a supply of biscuits which were bound for
Pero Vaz da Cunha's caravel. Accompanying his
signature is a drawing of a small sailing vessel.
Presumably, this craft is the caravel to which these
supplies were to be sent. This being the case, this
drawing provided by Joao de Liao is the first known
representation of a Portuguese caravel. Three other
signatures of fisherman from Puerto de Santa Maria
likewise contain simple depictions of vessels from
this period, and are likened to the caravel from the
signature of Joao de Liao. The vessels have low
freeboards, delicately sloping bows, single
forecastles, and are single-masted with lateen
rigged sails. Although these depictions provide
little along the lines of structural
characteristics, these rudimentary sketches
nevertheless contribute to our perceptions of early
caravels with regard to shape and primary traits
that the artists attributed to the ships.
2. Caravel from Livro das Fortalezas de Duarte Damas
This image comes from a page of the early
16th-century book called Livro das Fortalezas de
Duarte Damas, and clearly shows a caravel with an
elongated hull and single sterncastle.
Unfortunately, like most ship iconography, the
caravel's hull is only shown from the waterline up.
This makes it difficult to analyze the lower part of
the hull, but does show the relatively low freeboard
these vessels employed. All the sails are furled in
this representation, and the caravel is shown fairly
close to the shore in the original representation.
Note the similarities between this image and those
from the above signatures of the 15th-century
fishermen.
At this point, an examination of various documents
and manuscripts can help describe the practice of
Iberian shipbuilding, for they do not become
available until the 16th century. Until records of
shipbuilding practices were kept, such information
was safeguarded in the minds of skilled masters who
passed on the traditions orally from generation to
generation, and by shared work experience. However,
as Casado Soto points out, the combination of low
life expectancy and the rigid secrecy that was
practiced regarding this specialized knowledge
ensured that these traditions would not survive in
writing (22).
Before the reign of the Christian kings, there was
little mention of shipbuilding in Castilian
documents, and when ships do appear it is usually
only with regard to their names, types, and
occasionally tonnage in 揵arrels? However, with the
reign of Charles V and the expansion of foreign
policy, there was an increase in management
techniques. By the time Phillip II became king, the
Spanish bureaucracy reached maturity. During his
reign (1556-1598), he regulated navigation in
convoy, set a standard for mercantile shipbuilding,
and introduced technical specifications that led to
improvements in safety (23). He gave incentive to
shipbuilders by exempting sales tax for the
purchasing of shipbuilding materials. Phillip II
also established an efficient system for measuring
the hulls and capacities of ships, and was the first
European monarch to use a prototype to build ships
for the armadas, choosing the galleon as the model
(24). It is during his reign that the production of
documents recording shipbuilding techniques grew the
most.
The following are some of the
documents that have been published:
1536, Alonso de Chavez: Espejo de
navegantes (25)
ca.
1560, President Visitador: Papeles
(26)
1568, Domingo de Busturria: Memorial
(27)
ca.
1570, Rodrigo Vargas: Apuntamiento
(28)
1575, Juan Escalante de Mendoza:
Itinerario de navegaci髇 (29)
1581, Crostobal de Barros y otros:
Discuci髇 de prototipos de galleon
(30)
1587, Diego Garc韆 de Palacio:
Instrucci髇 nautical (31)
1611, Tom Cano: Arte para fabricar,
fortificar y aparejar naos (32)
These documents are useful tools for studying
the history of shipbuilding, but caution must be
taken when interpreting them. The various authors
were influenced by their professions and the extent
of their experience in shipbuilding is largely
unknown. Nevertheless, they give information on raw
materials needed for shipbuilding, as well as
dimension and tonnage of ships.
Manuscripts and treatises concerning shipbuilding
during this period may be more helpful in
understanding how Iberian ships were constructed.
There are three in particular that deserve
attention: Instrucci髇 nautical (33), Liuro da
fabrica das naos (34), and Livro de tra鏰s de
carpintaria (35). To learn more about these
manuscripts, visit the shipbuilding treatises page
on this website.Existing Caravel Iconography
What we know about the physical appearance of the
caravel--including the shape of its hull, the slope
of the bow, how it rides in the water, etc.--is
severely limited to iconographic representation from
the era under examination. This is a mixed blessing,
since without these remnants from the past we would
have no visual aid for what this vessel looked like.
However, as with all artists' renditions, there
exists the possibility of inaccuracy due to
ignorance, misinterpretation of data, or personal
embellishment. Thus, although the value of
iconographic representations of ancient ships can be
inestimable, they must be studied carefully and with
a critical eye.
The following images are a compilation of much of
the existing graphic representations of the caravel.
The first ten are some of the depictions that
contain the most prominent features of the vessel,
and short descriptions have been included below the
iconography.
1. Caravels from the signatures of 15th-century
Portuguese fishermen
On 5 December 1488 master Joao de Liao signed an
order for a supply of biscuits which were bound for
Pero Vaz da Cunha's caravel. Accompanying his
signature is a drawing of a small sailing vessel.
Presumably, this craft is the caravel to which these
supplies were to be sent. This being the case, this
drawing provided by Joao de Liao is the first known
representation of a Portuguese caravel. Three other
signatures of fisherman from Puerto de Santa Maria
likewise contain simple depictions of vessels from
this period, and are likened to the caravel from the
signature of Joao de Liao. The vessels have low
freeboards, delicately sloping bows, single
forecastles, and are single-masted with lateen
rigged sails. Although these depictions provide
little along the lines of structural
characteristics, these rudimentary sketches
nevertheless contribute to our perceptions of early
caravels with regard to shape and primary traits
that the artists attributed to the ships.
2. Caravel from Livro das Fortalezas de Duarte Damas
This image comes from a page of the early
16th-century book called Livro das Fortalezas de
Duarte Damas, and clearly shows a caravel with an
elongated hull and single sterncastle.
Unfortunately, like most ship iconography, the
caravel's hull is only shown from the waterline up.
This makes it difficult to analyze the lower part of
the hull, but does show the relatively low freeboard
these vessels employed. All the sails are furled in
this representation, and the caravel is shown fairly
close to the shore in the original representation.
Note the similarities between this image and those
from the above signatures of the 15th-century
fishermen.
|
|
The following are some of the
|
|
These documents are useful tools for studying
the history of shipbuilding, but caution must be
taken when interpreting them. The various authors
were influenced by their professions and the extent
of their experience in shipbuilding is largely
unknown. Nevertheless, they give information on raw
materials needed for shipbuilding, as well as
dimension and tonnage of ships.
Manuscripts and treatises concerning shipbuilding
during this period may be more helpful in
understanding how Iberian ships were constructed.
There are three in particular that deserve
attention: Instrucci髇 nautical (33), Liuro da
fabrica das naos (34), and Livro de tra鏰s de
carpintaria (35). To learn more about these
manuscripts, visit the shipbuilding treatises page
on this website.Existing Caravel Iconography
What we know about the physical appearance of the
caravel--including the shape of its hull, the slope
of the bow, how it rides in the water, etc.--is
severely limited to iconographic representation from
the era under examination. This is a mixed blessing,
since without these remnants from the past we would
have no visual aid for what this vessel looked like.
However, as with all artists' renditions, there
exists the possibility of inaccuracy due to
ignorance, misinterpretation of data, or personal
embellishment. Thus, although the value of
iconographic representations of ancient ships can be
inestimable, they must be studied carefully and with
a critical eye.
The following images are a compilation of much of
the existing graphic representations of the caravel.
The first ten are some of the depictions that
contain the most prominent features of the vessel,
and short descriptions have been included below the
iconography.
1. Caravels from the signatures of 15th-century
Portuguese fishermen
On 5 December 1488 master Joao de Liao signed an
order for a supply of biscuits which were bound for
Pero Vaz da Cunha's caravel. Accompanying his
signature is a drawing of a small sailing vessel.
Presumably, this craft is the caravel to which these
supplies were to be sent. This being the case, this
drawing provided by Joao de Liao is the first known
representation of a Portuguese caravel. Three other
signatures of fisherman from Puerto de Santa Maria
likewise contain simple depictions of vessels from
this period, and are likened to the caravel from the
signature of Joao de Liao. The vessels have low
freeboards, delicately sloping bows, single
forecastles, and are single-masted with lateen
rigged sails. Although these depictions provide
little along the lines of structural
characteristics, these rudimentary sketches
nevertheless contribute to our perceptions of early
caravels with regard to shape and primary traits
that the artists attributed to the ships.
2. Caravel from Livro das Fortalezas de Duarte Damas
This image comes from a page of the early
16th-century book called Livro das Fortalezas de
Duarte Damas, and clearly shows a caravel with an
elongated hull and single sterncastle.
Unfortunately, like most ship iconography, the
caravel's hull is only shown from the waterline up.
This makes it difficult to analyze the lower part of
the hull, but does show the relatively low freeboard
these vessels employed. All the sails are furled in
this representation, and the caravel is shown fairly
close to the shore in the original representation.
Note the similarities between this image and those
from the above signatures of the 15th-century
fishermen.
Existing Caravel Iconography
What we know about the physical appearance of the
caravel--including the shape of its hull, the slope
of the bow, how it rides in the water, etc.--is
severely limited to iconographic representation from
the era under examination. This is a mixed blessing,
since without these remnants from the past we would
have no visual aid for what this vessel looked like.
However, as with all artists' renditions, there
exists the possibility of inaccuracy due to
ignorance, misinterpretation of data, or personal
embellishment. Thus, although the value of
iconographic representations of ancient ships can be
inestimable, they must be studied carefully and with
a critical eye.
The following images are a compilation of much of
the existing graphic representations of the caravel.
The first ten are some of the depictions that
contain the most prominent features of the vessel,
and short descriptions have been included below the
iconography.
1. Caravels from the signatures of 15th-century
Portuguese fishermen
On 5 December 1488 master Joao de Liao signed an
order for a supply of biscuits which were bound for
Pero Vaz da Cunha's caravel. Accompanying his
signature is a drawing of a small sailing vessel.
Presumably, this craft is the caravel to which these
supplies were to be sent. This being the case, this
drawing provided by Joao de Liao is the first known
representation of a Portuguese caravel. Three other
signatures of fisherman from Puerto de Santa Maria
likewise contain simple depictions of vessels from
this period, and are likened to the caravel from the
signature of Joao de Liao. The vessels have low
freeboards, delicately sloping bows, single
forecastles, and are single-masted with lateen
rigged sails. Although these depictions provide
little along the lines of structural
characteristics, these rudimentary sketches
nevertheless contribute to our perceptions of early
caravels with regard to shape and primary traits
that the artists attributed to the ships.
2. Caravel from Livro das Fortalezas de Duarte Damas
This image comes from a page of the early
16th-century book called Livro das Fortalezas de
Duarte Damas, and clearly shows a caravel with an
elongated hull and single sterncastle.
Unfortunately, like most ship iconography, the
caravel's hull is only shown from the waterline up.
This makes it difficult to analyze the lower part of
the hull, but does show the relatively low freeboard
these vessels employed. All the sails are furled in
this representation, and the caravel is shown fairly
close to the shore in the original representation.
Note the similarities between this image and those
from the above signatures of the 15th-century
fishermen.
The following images are a compilation of much of
the existing graphic representations of the caravel.
The first ten are some of the depictions that
contain the most prominent features of the vessel,
and short descriptions have been included below the
iconography.
1. Caravels from the signatures of 15th-century
Portuguese fishermen
On 5 December 1488 master Joao de Liao signed an
order for a supply of biscuits which were bound for
Pero Vaz da Cunha's caravel. Accompanying his
signature is a drawing of a small sailing vessel.
Presumably, this craft is the caravel to which these
supplies were to be sent. This being the case, this
drawing provided by Joao de Liao is the first known
representation of a Portuguese caravel. Three other
signatures of fisherman from Puerto de Santa Maria
likewise contain simple depictions of vessels from
this period, and are likened to the caravel from the
signature of Joao de Liao. The vessels have low
freeboards, delicately sloping bows, single
forecastles, and are single-masted with lateen
rigged sails. Although these depictions provide
little along the lines of structural
characteristics, these rudimentary sketches
nevertheless contribute to our perceptions of early
caravels with regard to shape and primary traits
that the artists attributed to the ships.
2. Caravel from Livro das Fortalezas de Duarte Damas
This image comes from a page of the early
16th-century book called Livro das Fortalezas de
Duarte Damas, and clearly shows a caravel with an
elongated hull and single sterncastle.
Unfortunately, like most ship iconography, the
caravel's hull is only shown from the waterline up.
This makes it difficult to analyze the lower part of
the hull, but does show the relatively low freeboard
these vessels employed. All the sails are furled in
this representation, and the caravel is shown fairly
close to the shore in the original representation.
Note the similarities between this image and those
from the above signatures of the 15th-century
fishermen.
On 5 December 1488 master Joao de Liao signed an
order for a supply of biscuits which were bound for
Pero Vaz da Cunha's caravel. Accompanying his
signature is a drawing of a small sailing vessel.
Presumably, this craft is the caravel to which these
supplies were to be sent. This being the case, this
drawing provided by Joao de Liao is the first known
representation of a Portuguese caravel. Three other
signatures of fisherman from Puerto de Santa Maria
likewise contain simple depictions of vessels from
this period, and are likened to the caravel from the
signature of Joao de Liao. The vessels have low
freeboards, delicately sloping bows, single
forecastles, and are single-masted with lateen
rigged sails. Although these depictions provide
little along the lines of structural
characteristics, these rudimentary sketches
nevertheless contribute to our perceptions of early
caravels with regard to shape and primary traits
that the artists attributed to the ships.
2. Caravel from Livro das Fortalezas de Duarte Damas
This image comes from a page of the early
16th-century book called Livro das Fortalezas de
Duarte Damas, and clearly shows a caravel with an
elongated hull and single sterncastle.
Unfortunately, like most ship iconography, the
caravel's hull is only shown from the waterline up.
This makes it difficult to analyze the lower part of
the hull, but does show the relatively low freeboard
these vessels employed. All the sails are furled in
this representation, and the caravel is shown fairly
close to the shore in the original representation.
Note the similarities between this image and those
from the above signatures of the 15th-century
fishermen.
This image comes from a page of the early 16th-century book called Livro das Fortalezas de Duarte Damas, and clearly shows a caravel with an elongated hull and single sterncastle. Unfortunately, like most ship iconography, the caravel's hull is only shown from the waterline up. This makes it difficult to analyze the lower part of the hull, but does show the relatively low freeboard these vessels employed. All the sails are furled in this representation, and the caravel is shown fairly close to the shore in the original representation. Note the similarities between this image and those from the above signatures of the 15th-century fishermen.
-
Azevedo, P. 1934. Documentos das chancelarias reaes relativos a Marrocos. Lisbon.
-
Baker, J.G. 1979. 揑slamic Influences on Iberian Seafaring. Unpublished paper, Texas A&M University.
-
Barata, J. da G. P. 1987. 揂 caravela, breve estudo geral. Studia. 46:157-84.
-
Barker, R. 2001. 揝ources for Lusitanian Shipbuilding. In Trabalhos de arqueologia, edited by F. Alves, 18:213-28. Lisbon: IPA.
-
Cano, T. 1964. Reprint. Arte para fabricar, fortificar y aparejar naos de guerra y merchant.: La Laguna: Biblioteca de Autores Canarios. Original edition, Sevelle, 1611.
-
Casado Soto, J.L. 1988. Los barcos espa駉les del siglo XVI y la Gran Armada de 1588. Madrid.
-
1998. 揊lota atl醤tica y tecnolog韆 naval hisp醤ica en tiempos de Filipe II. In Congreso Internacional las Sociedades Ib閞icas y el mar a finales del siglo XVI. Madrid.VI.II:339-64.
-
2001. 揟he Spanish Ships of the Oceanic Expansion. Documentation, Archaeology, and Iconography from the 15th and 16th Centuries. In Trabalhos de arqueologia, edited by F. Alves, 18:131-62d扐lbertis. 1892. Construzioni. Genova: Tipografia del R. Instituto.
-
Edwards, C.R. 1992. 揇esign and Construction of Fifteenth 朇entury Iberian Ships: A Review. MM. 78.4:419-32.
-
Elbl, M.M. 1985. 揟he Portuguese Caravel and European Shipbuilding: Phases of Development and Diversity. Revista da Universidade de Coimbra. 33:547-72.
-
Etayo, C. 1971. Naos y Carabelas de los Descubrimientos y las Naves de Col髇. Pamplona.
-
Fernandez, M. 1989. Fac-simile. Livro de tra鏰s de carpintaria. Lisbon: Academia de Marinha. Original edition, Lisbon, 1616.
-
Fernandez, M. 1995. Reprint. Livro de tra鏰s de carpintaria. Translated by Dr. Manuel Leit鉶. Lisbon: Academia de Marinha. Original edition, Lisbon, 1616.
-
Garc韆 de Palacio, D. 1587. Instrucci髇 nautical. Mexico.
-
1944. Fac-similie. Instrucci髇 nautical para navegar por el doctor Diego Garc韆 de Palacio. Madrid: Instituto de Cultura Hisp醤ica. Original edition, Mexico, 1587.
-
Lyon, E. 1993. 揟he Ni馻, the Santa Cruz, and Other Caravels as Described in the Livro de armadas and Other Spanish Records. The American Neptune. 53.4:239-46.
-
Michel, F. 1867-70. Histoire du commerce de Bordeaux. Bordeaux.
-
Oertling, T.J. 1988. 揟he Molasses Reef and Highborn Cay Wrecks: Two Early 16th Century Hulls. In Underwater Archaeology Proceedings from the Society for Historical Archaeology Conference Reno, edited by J. Delgado, 116-120.
-
1989a. 揟he Molasses Reef Wreck Hull Analysis: Final Report. IJNA. 18.3:229-43.
-
1989b. 揟he Highborn Cay Wreck: The 1986 Field Season. IJNA.18.3:244-53.
-
2001. 揟he Concept of the Atlantic Vessel. In Trabalhos de arqueologia, edited by F. Alves, 18:233-40.
-
Oliveira, F. 1991. Fac-similie. Livro da fabrica das naos. Lisbon: Academia de Marinha. Original edition, 1580.
-
Sarsfield, J. 1985. 揊rom the Brink of Extinction. Wooden Boats. 66:84-9.
-
Unger, R.W. 1980. The Ship in the Medieval Economy, 600-1600. Montreal: McGill-Queen抯 University Press.
 |
 |
|
|
|
 |